Sexuality in Men and Women

Sexuality in Men and Women Sexuality Men Women Outline two or more different approaches to the study of sexuality. Sexuality is mainly conceived as being a natural drive or instinct, which becomes inevitably part of the biological make-up of an individual, which only seeks fulfilment through sexual activity. Such a view of sexuality, which sees such as a natural entity, is most commonly referred to as essentialism. The majority of essentialist theories present today have presented sex as a natural instinct needed for the purpose of reproductive activity. In such a way, Weeks (1986) outlines that in such an essentialist approach there is an apparent link between sexuality and biological sex/gender. â€Å"Modern culture has assumed an intimate connection between the fact of being biologically male or female (that is having appropriate sex organs and reproductive potentialities) and the correct form of erotic behaviour (usually genital intercourse between men and women)† (Weeks 1986 p.13) In regards to an essentialist viewpoint, one is left to distinguish between men and women, in particular reference to their independent sexual desires and needs. It has been noted that women tend to have a natural tendency to promiscuity while men, on the other hand are described as having a much stronger sex drive. Therefore, in reference to this particular discourse, human sexuality is heavily rooted in biological terms, whereby a heterosexual drive intended for the purpose of procreation would be considered â€Å"normal.† Thus, under such an approach, lesbian, gay and bisexual men and women have been largely considered deviant and unnatural, while any individuals who categorise themselves as any of these are subsequently not considered â€Å"real† men or women. â€Å"We learn very early on from many sources that â€Å"natural† sex is what takes place with members of the â€Å"opposite† sex. â€Å"Sex† between people of the same â€Å"sex† is therefore, by definition, â€Å"unnatural.† (Weeks 1986 p.13) For both men and women, heterosexuality is clearly the norm under such an approach, while sex is ideally expressed in monogamous and marital relationships in an ideal world. Jeffrey Weeks, who happens to be one of the key critics of essentialism has been known to reject any approach that fails to consider the historical and social forces that shape sexuality. Weeks suggests that the diversity of sexual identity and desire is also important to acknowledge. He rejects the notion that there is a true essence of sex, there is no â€Å"uniformed pattern† which is â€Å"ordained by nature itself† (Weeks 1986 p.15). The essentialist argument comes as simplistic to Weeks, as it reduces the nature of sexual relations and identities to biological factors. Many other theorists have acknowledged the simplistic nature of essentialism, by agreeing that sexual desires may appear to be natural, but also acknowledging the idea that our sexual responses and identities may in fact be socially constructed. When we learn the patterns of our behaviour, we are subjected to the meanings attached to such behaviours as well. Such behaviours then become a product of certain social and historical forces; which can immediately be extended to include our sexual attitudes, feelings and the ways in which we feel about sexuality itself and hence our sexual identity. It has been said that sexuality is very much shaped by the culture in which we live. The very factors that make up our society (laws, religious teachings, social policies, the media) all attach their own meaning to such meanings that are conveyed to us. This approach does not deem biology as insignificant; inevitably the body imposes some limits due to sheer distinction between being male or female i.e. we experience different things in regards to what genitalia we possess. Yet having said this, anatomical structure and physiology do not directly influence what we do and the way we act, not does it determine the meaning we attach to the actions we choose to make. â€Å"All the constituent elements of sexuality have their source either in the body or the mind, and I am not attempting to deny the limits posed by biology or mental processes. But the capacities of the body are given meaning only by social relations†. (Weeks 1986 p.15). In relation to social construction, the body is said to gain certain meaning in certain social contexts as different parts of the body can be defined in many different ways. For example, in the 1960s it was stated that a new cultural context emerged. It was at this point in time that the â€Å"G-spot† was discovered. Such a discovery led to the vast publication of books, with the added introduction of classes to help women explore their bodies and find their so-called â€Å"G-spot.† In such a way, the physical anatomy of women stayed the same as before but at this point it had a different social significance. This particular part of the body was given a particular and new social meaning, which was constructed to become an object of desire. Foucault (1981) has been a very influential early theorist by shedding light on the social construction of sexuality. He argues that there is no one truth about sex. Hence various discourses, whether this be it law, religion, medicine or psychiatry have established their particular view of the body and its relative pleasures. Sexual desire is created through a set of bodily sensations, pleasures and feelings. It is such desires which shape our sexual values and henceforth the meaning we attach to our bodies. Sex is therefore not some biological entity governed by natural laws (as suggested by essentialism) but is more like an idea specific to certain cultures and particular historical periods. The creation of definitions and in particular the categorisation such that of heterosexual, homosexual and lesbian etc becomes the ingredients of sex. It is through this that we try to make sense of it. However, the work of Foucault, although recognised as very important has been criticised for not paying enough attention to the way gender influences sexual desire and identity. In tangent with the work of Foucault, Weeks highlights that sexual identity is historically shaped. Weeks was apprehensive with the way in which sexuality and especially homosexuality has been embedded in an ever-changing and highly complex history over the past 100 years. With a number of influences, cited as being feminists, gay and lesbian activists and Foucault himself, Weeks developed the hypothesis that many sexual categories that we ultimately take for granted are actually the product of social and historical labels. The distinction between the â€Å"natural† and secure are all subject to continuous labelling. Weeks felt it important to study the history of sexuality, in order to gain an understanding of the many forms of identities existent in society today, in terms of demographics such as class, ethnicity, gender and sexual preference. Again, he emphasises the point that it is reductionist to reduce the complexities of reality to essentialist biological truth. Sexual identity, therefore, according to Weeks is not achieved simply by an act of individual will but rather through social construction. In addition to the above, â€Å"the biological justification for heterosexuality as normal, it might be proposed, has fallen apart. What used to be called perversions are merely ways in which sexuality can legitimately be expressed and self-identity be defined.† (Giddens 1992 p.179). Giddens suggests that it is late modernity that has changed sexuality from being a single hegemony and replaced it with sexual pluralism. This significant shift brought on by the fact that sexuality as a term was largely replaced by â€Å"sexual identity,† which nonetheless is defined by individual choice, whereby sexual choice falls under one of the elements of an individual’s â€Å"lifestyle† choice. In a historical sense, such a shift took place in a very short period of time. Sex and ways of thinking about it, provided a science of sex so to speak. These were accompanied by clear distinctions between the normal and abnormal. Such ways of thinking have produced a series of accounts of the way people behave sexually. Such accounts different to the work of the early sexologists such as Freud. Giddens introduces the notion of institutional reflexivity to explain the shift. Through the process of reflexivity, it is the distinctions between the â€Å"normal us† and the â€Å"perverse them† that vanish. Sexual diversity, although still regarded by many hostile groups as perversion, has moved out of Freuds case-history notebooks into the everyday social world (Giddens 1992 p.33). It has been found that there has been evidence to support the claim that the notion of perversion has been replaced by diversity, that our expressions of sexual desire rank alongside other expressions of self-identity, that sexual pluralism has replaced sexual monism. Some caution is necessary with this however, as Weeks points out (1986 p.81) â€Å"the admitted fact of diversity need not lead to a norm of diversity.† Such arguments and criticisms establishing the complex nature to the study of sexuality. Amongst the essentialist/social constructionist debate, there has been a large amount of contribution from radical feminists. Radical feminists, (the assumed extreme ended form of feminism), has come under criticism for employing an essentialist viewpoint, whereby radical feminists themselves would claim to be following a social constructionist viewpoint. The essentialism that radical feminists are thought to applied to radical feminist thought is not the traditional biological sense, but a more social sense. Radical feminists view the subordinate position of women as being universal and hence unchanging, therefore leading to a failure in acknowledging historical and cultural difference. As Ann Ferguson states â€Å"though these social constructionist theories may not technically be biologically essentialist, they are still a form of social essentialism: that is, they assume a social divide between male and female sexual natures which is unconvincingly universal, static and ahistorical.† (Ferguson 1989 p.54) Typically, radical feminist thought on sexuality has pondered on the way in which patriarchy impacts women in particular social contexts. Radical feminists have not assumed sexuality to be universal and hence unchanging. A large part of the belief system of many radical feminists is the view that sexuality is socially constructed and therefore can be changed and reconstructed in many different ways; views on sexuality can change and be opposed. Nonetheless, all preceding points have been ignored, as the view that radical feminists are essentialist has largely been adopted. IN addition to this, it appears that the recent that the influence of postmodernist ideas within feminism has re-instated this. For example, the words â€Å"patriarchy†, â€Å"woman† and â€Å"man† have been classifies as essentialist and problematic. Such issues and conceptions highlight the difficulty in theorising sexuality with one dominant approach. It has been suggested that queer theory, as it emerged in the 1980s in the United States, was the distinctive factor that provided intellectual challenge to the categories that were established in the 19th century. It was queer theory that opposed the idea that heterosexuality was the only natural and normal form of sexuality, in addition to challenging the idea that homosexuality was in fact a distinct category of people that act in a particular way. All binary divisions that were imposed on sex and sexuality were rejected by such an approach. It was argued that the theoretical basis for the rejection of existing categories was due to the fact that such categories fails to reflect real differences, whether this be biological or otherwise, but instead reflected discourse. Such categories therefore, were part of the language of heterosexual dominance and hence had no truth outside it. (Stein Plummer 1994). Furthermore, queer theory also criticized the notion of distinct sexual identities. Similar to postmodern thought on sexuality, queer theory recognized that the conception of identity was made up of many different things. â€Å"Individuals can construct and reconstruct themselves through their choice of lifestyles, moving across categories and boundaries as they please† (Epstein 1994). Queer theory not only provided a refreshing sociological analysis of the importance of social categories but also had a political aim as well. However, such a viewpoint is open to sociological criticism as some may argue that fails to recognize the sheer volume of social construction, hence leaving the approach fairly simplistic. Judith Butler’s work (1990, 1991) represents a postmodern attempt to theorise sexuality. Butler challenges the assumed causal links between sex, gender and sexual desire. She emphasises that the person individuals’ desire is seen to lead from either being masculine or feminine, whereby the norm construction is for desire to be directed towards the opposite gender. Not only does Butler challenge such a notion, but further goes on to address the assumption that heterosexuality is the only valid form of sexual desire. To her, heterosexuality is simply one element of desire. What is important to point out at this point is the fact that heterosexuality is the only form of desire that has come to be seen as natural. Butler highlights that once these notions and so called links are challenged then both gender and sexual desire will become â€Å"fluid† – something which is not extensively present today. Butler is one of the few theorists who contests all forms of sexual norms. â€Å"It is not just the norm of heterosexuality that is tenuous. It’s all sexual norms† (Butler in Osbourne and Segal 1994) Going into further detail, Butler proposes that no gender is a â€Å"true† gender. Gender is a performance; it is more about what is done at particular times rather than a universally fixed notion. Butler sees heterosexuality as the â€Å"naturalized† original, while a binary model of sexual identity i.e. the â€Å"either/or† of hetero/homosexuality is unstable as each requires the other as a reference point. For Butler, â€Å"there is no proper gender, a gender proper to one sex or the other, which is some way that sexs cultural property (Butler 1991 p.21). There are, rather, illusions of continuity, by which heterosexuality naturalises itself. Such an illusion is thought to depend on the idea that â€Å"there is first a sex which is expressed through a gender and then through a sexuality† (Ibid). However, Butler argues the opposite, stating that a â€Å"regime of sexuality mandates as compulsory performance of sex† (ibid p.29). We have already established that the performance relied on masculinity and femininity. According to Butler, the linked chain of sex, gender and desire, which becomes the make-up of heterosexuality is thought to be required yet fragile at the same time. The claim of such a chain being fragile is addressed in Butler’s Gender Trouble (1996), whereby Butler outlines a fundamental interpretation of the â€Å"Oedipal struggle† as developed by psychologist Freud. Within this text, Butler chooses to focus on the original denial of same-sex desire. She readily argues that it is homosexual incest that was the original taboo, as compared to heterosexual incest as was claimed. â€Å"The young boy and the young girl who enter into the Oedipal Drama with incestuous heterosexual aims have already been subject to prohibitions with dispose them in distinct sexual directions. Hence the dispositions that Freud assumes to be primary or constitutive facts of sexual life are effects of a law, which internalised, produces and regulates discrete gender identity and heterosexuality.† (Butler 1990 p.64) Therefore, the gender identification within the oedipal struggle is one that is produced by the repression and denial of same-sex desire. Such a disposition is caused by the effects of laws that see same-sex desire negatively. Some may argue that such a statement supports the idea of social constructionism. In regards to heterosexuality, there are certain expectations that are placed on the body which relate to gender performance in order to acquire sexuality. A â€Å"feminine† woman and a â€Å"masculine† man are expected to experience pleasure via penetration of their respective genitalia. This nonetheless explains the problems faced by transsexuals and the belief that successful acquisition of gender identity is impossible without the appropriate genitalia. Therefore, the transsexual’s gain or loss of a particular body part to establish a certain desired identity is not a â€Å"subversive† act but rather an act that portrays the nature and existence of the link between sex, gender and desire have become â€Å"naturalized.† Although the work of Butler has been highly influential in the discipline of gender studies, it appears that a number of criticisms have been attached to her work. A major critic to the work of Butler has been Nancy Fraser, who argues that the concept of performance in relation to gender and sexuality and Butler’s immediate focus on it is somewhat ignorant of â€Å"everyday ways of talking and thinking about ourselves.† Many others have also focused on such an issue in their criticism of Butler’s work. For example, Speer and Potter also argue that Butler’s work is difficult to apply to real-life situations, as the focus on language and meaning leads to problems relating to validity. Generally, over the past couple of decades, it appears that there have been significant shifts in the understanding and acceptance of sexuality, especially homosexuality. There has clearly been an emergence of new sexual identities, with fundamental challenged to traditional frameworks. However, having examined a number of approaches to the study of sexuality and looking closely upon the basis of the arguments presented by many of the theorists addressed in this essay it appears as though their arguments are in a nutshell rooted within the essentialist/social constructionist argument. While there are theorists who view sexuality as determined by a particular factor whether this be it biological or anything else, there are those that view that society and history have their part to play as well. I feel that such a construction and these same assumptions, in whatever form they may come, will always remain. Sexuality will perhaps always be subjected to such connotations. What I do find important, however, is the factor of gender and its relationship to sexuality. It appears that gender is in fact an integral part of sexuality and the understanding of it. However, even discourse on sexuality and gender are yet to clearly direct us to a definitive understanding of sexuality. References BUTLER, JUDITH (1990) â€Å"Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity†, London: Routledge, pp. 21-29 BUTLER, JUDITH (1991) â€Å"Imitation and gender subordination† in D. Fuss (ed.) â€Å"Inside/out Lesbian theories, Gay theories†, London: Routledge, pp 64-65 EPSTEIN, STEVEN (1987) â€Å"Gay politics, ethnic identity: the limits of social constructionism†, Socialist Review, 93/94: pp 9-54 FERGUSON, ANN (1989) â€Å"Blood at the Root: Motherhood, Sexuality and Male Dominance†, London: Pandora Press, pp 54-55 FOUCAULT, MICHEL (1981) â€Å"The History of Sexuality Volume 1: An Introduction†, Harmondsworth: Penguin FRASER, NANCY (1994) â€Å"False Anthitheses† in â€Å"Feminist Contentions: A Philosophical Exchange†, London: Routledge, p 67 GIDDENS, ANTHONY (1992) â€Å"The Transformation of Intimacy: Sexuality, Love and Eroticism in Modern Societies†, Cambridge: Polity Press, p 33 p 179 HAWKES, GAIL, (1996) â€Å"A sociology of sex and sexuality†, Buckingham: Open University Press, pp 134-141 MARSH, IAN (2000 ed) â€Å"Sociology making sense of society†, London: Prentice Hall, pp 327-380 OSBOURNE, PETER and SEGAL, LYNNE (1994) â€Å"Gender as performance: an interview with Judith Butler.† in MARSH, IAN (2nd ed), â€Å"Sociology making sense of society†, London: Prentice Hall, pp 373 RICHARDSON, DIANE (2000) â€Å"Rethinking sexuality†, London: Sage, pp 19-67 SPEER, SUSAN and POTTER, JONATHAN (2002) â€Å"From Performatives to Practices† in McILVENNY, PAUL (ed) â€Å"Talking Gender and Sexuality†, Philadelphia: John Benjamins Company, pp 150-180 STEIN, ARLENE and PLUMMER, KEN (1996) â€Å"I can’t even think straight†: â€Å"queer† theory and the missing sexual revolution in sociology†, in SEIDMAN, STEVEN (ed.), â€Å"Queer Theory/Sociology†, Oxford: Blackwell. WEEKS, JEFFREY (1986) â€Å"Sexuality†, London: Tavistock, pp. 13-81

Would Principles of Scientific Management

Scientific Management as proposed by F. W. Taylor is a method based on a time and motion technique which have actually been divided into steps which helps in determining how fast a particular job can be performed and to the identification and elimination of all practices which leads to the wastages of time. The basic ingredients of time and motion technique begin with a stop watch as an input while the output consisting of an instruction sheet containing exact sequence of operations necessary for the work with exact time the same has to be completed (Klaw, 1979). The management theory suggests for every man in an organization is like one of a train of gear wheels (Haber, 1964:24) and it is these workers who are responsible for the production of a part of the complete product. The development process has to be subdivided into various sections with each section responsible for a part of the whole product rather than the whole product and at the same time various automation techniques are being introduced so that workers can be assigned to single task while external supervisors were meant for the purpose of control. (Miller, 2002). Now we take up the case of Timbuk2. The company headed by Rob Honeycutt followed the way through which Toyota used to produce cars after implementing the use of Toyota Sewing System. The procedure gets unfolded with the product development process has been subdivided into various phases with output of each phase being the input of next phase. A particular operator has the responsibility of a portion of the complete product and once he or she finishes its job, the output is being moved on to the next operator who performs the next operation. Hence in principle this product development process of bags for bike messenger services in Timbuk2 represents a very ideal case for possible implementation of Scientific Management Principle. Since the management policy targets starts with the grass root level with workers doing repetitive jobs. In Timbak2 similar policies are being followed. The company has been very active in obtaining new technology and modifying production techniques. Now looking into what Scientific Management suggest the states that a worker in a repetitive job is more interested in just achieving the minimum required target. He is not at all concerned with the term productivity and growth of the firm and is more of less involves itself just to the domain he or she is actually. To get over these problems, Taylor proposed many concepts of which some were accepted at the time of proposal only like the case of Ford while others were appreciated later. But still there are a large number of managers or trade unionists who is actually not a believer of Taylor’s Theory. Their point of contention is that it is rarely or better to say not at possible to have identical economic interest for both management and workers. There is mistrust between workers and managers. Managers are more interested in improving efficiency and overall performance of the firm and consider this as their own responsibility while the worker views every attempt of training and improvement of technology or modernization process as a tactics by the management to reduce work force and extract more work by the reduced number. Workers’ concerns are not baseless. Taylor’s method has automation as the culminating point. By automation, we mean more and more work is to be done by machines and company’s reliance on workforce will considerably get reduced. This will again undermine the interest of the employees and the point from where Taylor’s theory of total prosperity starts, gets lost. Taylor had suggested for regular training of employees to improve productivity. He also made a point that a worker should be given rest breaks to get over fatigue (Taylor, 1911). This will help to get more output with long er duration of inventory utilization. His idea of training and work arrangement has the motive that a worker should be made to think that more work will result more output and finally more payment. But despite having so much novelties and goodness and loads of appreciation from great people like Henry Ford, from the beginning itself the theory was under fire and its applicability has always been a matter of discussion. The theory which was actually meant for improving efficiency and production later faltered and the same became reason of absenteeism and lack of commitment among workers. Moving on to employee’s contribution in improving the and The company has been able to successfully maintain a very harmonic relationship with According to Backer, in his paper of 1998, implementation of scientific management gave immediate result with drastic fall in the over all cost of production with more and more product being produced at a much lower price thereby causing great change in the way it was consumed by the masses. But it was on the part of management to implement this concept fully. They lacked in this regard thereby causing unrest among workers causing emergence of trade unionism which Taylor used to hate and workers started going to strikes. Their causes were genuine because despite having 33% increases in overall production, workers were not given a considerable portion of the additional profit the companies made. The management started comparing their work force with machines and hence the era of low wages despite high performance started. This causes some of the great strikes in American history with one being suffered by US Steel Industry (Baker, 1998). Again it was Taylor’s Principles which received the blame both from the management as well as labor unions. Later the same principles were accepted by labor unions and were widely respected once better deciphered as beneficial for organized work force because of its clause of maximum prosperity and regular training to meet different production and efficiency targets (Backer, 1998). So finally Taylorism changed the relationship between the management and the workers. But still it was not considered as the perfect concept. Unorganized and unskilled had to face much of the heat caused by its implementation. They had to go with least of wages. This started making effect on organized sector. The skilled labor can now easily be replaced by easily trainable but unorganized and cheap workforce. And again the method and its goal were criticized in every quarter (Baker, 1998). Solution given by Taylor through his principles will always be called as a solution with a motive of complete removal of all supposed problems but had to face its share of failures. Spender in a very recent paper made a very good explanation on Taylor’s Solution, its successes and its failures (2006). He stated that new model factory based system of mass production of things through machines with the help of unskilled labor who are no more than operator of those machines was developed by engineers not by capitalists. These engineers analyzed the whole production process while taking the smallest detail into account. They applied time and motion techniques widely promoted by F. W. Taylor and made steep change in overall efficiency of the whole production process. Though the main motive was to produce more, earn more and give more to the workers but things got awry and because of different goals of management and that of workers, the most critical factor of human resource and social responsibility got subordinated (Rose, 1975:32). The workers were technically compared with machines and were more in an ox-cart cart situation. The engineers on the basis of Taylor’s method gave prominence to science for research and developed and inventory management so that complete and full fledged prosperity can be achieved. But the workers were just not ready to accept the so called independent stand of those engineers. Their past experience were good enough to believe that these engineers are proxy agents of the owners and the concept they are applying are nothing but an attempt to maximize the profit of the capitalists and in return the laborers will be awarded with something very meager . Though Taylor repeatedly stated that what ever change is going to happen will be done with nine-tenth in the management while only a very small change is going to b subjected among workers section, but his contention was hardly viewed by Unionist with enough faith. In his principles, Taylor made a deep explanation of the role of foreman. He used to be most important figure very much equivalent to that of king with power stretching beyond workplace to places outside the factory (Taylor, 1911:51). Top management was very much reliant on these foremen to organize production and was more or less focused on external issues like market share and overall profitability. The addition of new technology and automation restricted the overall status of that of foremen and this was widely appreciated. But with this, Taylor inadvertently provided owners with new means to defeat labor’s interests. The Scientific Management caused shifting planning from execution. The workers or craftsman had no longer authorized to take any decision and were reduced to the position from where they can only execute rather taking any part in decision making. This again made a felling that the labor are no more than a machine which are only supposed to work and must not utter a single word since all these principles have been implemented after looking into all aspects of their welfare. But what actually they would get was obscure (Spender, 2006). All this started giving rise to many labor problems which were strong enough to make changes both at the factory level as well as national politics. On giving deep thought it was concluded that the reason were not just the economic backwardness the laborers were facing but also an impression that they will be left behind in this extra fast economic and technological growth. Again looking with the eyes of Taylor, his principles were not intended to be either labor centric or management centric. His actual wish was to develop a completely new system which would open a new era of adjustment and common objectives for both the parties. But the return of implementing Scientific Management would vary and will get diminished when the firm will take the route of total control through the use of technology but the same will give desirable result in case of un availability of the same (Edwards, 1970:20). The main reason behind the difference was the wide difference between different industries (Chandler, 1977). The role of foreman got different definition in different industries. Factories with the purpose of mass production were now with foremen with lesser control while the opposite was seen in metallurgical trade (Nelson, 1975:36). The ideology of resolving the conflict between owners and workers by changing the whole concept of work and ownership took a backseat. His method was acclaimed and well adopted and very few implemented or incorporated it as a whole. And the management who was supposed to be the intelligent part of the system and were considered as the one to enforce Taylor’s principle, failed in proper application of the concept. And another way of creating harmony among workers and the administration got lost. And the reason remained the same i.e. working class and the management cannot have the same objective. Link – Belt case is a very good example where Taylor’s concept received applause for sorting out the problems between the management and the workers (Nelson, 1992:130). The firm was controlled by some of the ardent supporters of Taylor and his principles of scientific management. The company grew from being a Chicago enterprise manufacturing detachable link-chain for agricultural equipments to an important player in elevating and conveying machinery market (Nelson, 1992:131). The Principles of Scientific Management was implemented for the first time in the Philadelphia Plant of Link – Belt. It was later adopted in its Chicago Plant. But its implementation also exposed the weaknesses of this principle. The principle was actually implemented during period of recession. The economy was going downswing. So the implementation process was completed without any hassle. But the same workforce, who was nothing more than a silent spectator during the period of recession, started demanding when the firm was under pressure of maintaining its position in the recovered and competitive market. When deeply examined, in the period 1900 to 1940, it was found that the Link – Belt management actually never made any decision which were fully in accordance with the Taylor’s principle (Nelson, 1992:130). The solution they found involved espionage and then finding the weak link and causing defection in the opposite camp. All these techniques had been denounced by Taylor in his Principle of Scientific management. Actually Link – Belt management never ever tried to achieve industrial peace but insisted on techniques which showed their own lack of faith on this very Principle. And finally the company which was actually showcased as excellent example of Scientific Management could not find a suitable point in the Taylor’s Principle to tackle rising labour related issues. And thus with the whole purpose of achieving industrial harmony got lost (Nelson, 1992:151). Â  

Modern Mythology: Influence on the Society

Modern mythology is characterized as that by which are considered to be beings far from those who inhabit the earthly component of what seemed to be typical in the view of humankind.   The influence of myths in the standpoints and views of individuals had been one of the initial bases of our ancestors’ beliefs which are in a way creating a whole new dimension of their respective approaches in daily living (Bell, 1997).The broad landscape of myths had been sought to be traditionally passed on until the contemporary society of today, and as to how recent studies have stressed, the level of influence triggering the rationality of the masses had already been declining in some sort.   Such argument raised on why myths, which used to be the towering implication of human rationality had increasingly changed and depleted had been answered in the arena of sociological innovative as well as with the transformational changes in human beings sagacity of liberalism.Catastrophic EventHo wever, on the contrary of the proposition, one myth which I found to have been helpful, although factual data seem to mesmerize my stand is the Myth of the Gift of the Goddess, which caters an array of goddess-lined embodiment and correlating the goddess of fertility as that which conveys the essentiality of humanistic needs such as ‘sex’ and all the other forms of intimate relationships (Te Paske, 1982).Suppressing the realm of mythical, religious and cultural arena has been established to be that which serves as a symbol of the skills and capabilities of woman in performing its duties coherent with certain models, or what traditionalism presumed to be the representations of the kind of person any woman in the contemporary society incorporates.Freudian DoctrinesIn further illustration of the matter, shifting the scenario to Freudian doctrines, related with one of the mythical goddesses is Artemis, who is defined as the goddess who enjoys the gift of life and fertility or childbirth.   She is also known as the goddess of wilderness, thus given with such fact, it may be taken to assumption that women are capable of extracting and involving in ‘intimate’ relationships and thus have beliefs which are taken consideration initially before they are to dwell upon it (Te Paske, 1982).Sexual SolipcismFreud’s belief in the art of ‘sexual solipcism’ which never fails to mystify the society of today, is a proof that the level of rationality of human beings today, compared to that of the past decades had evolved in a rather more open echelon on ‘openness’ (Bell, 1997).   Freud established this so-called numerological fantasy connected to menstrual cycle of the female species by which on the hard line feminist critique of psychoanalysis is conceived as the predictable reaction to numerous psychologically based primacy of the internal organ of the male (Bell, 1997) and in the larger and rather explicit scale of s uch portrays the fact that all men are rapists and oppressors and women are the victims pious in their innocence (Te Paske, 1982).   The issue is deliberatively raised on the worst and animus shadow of the whole gist of what seemed to be a fact among the perception on men, thus creating a dim image of the men’s purity in mind and deed (Te Paske, 1982).Life Changing EventPerceivably, the only problem established by myths is its capability to change gradually the behavior and the personality of an individual who was able to acquire it.   21st  Century analogy and basis blatantly argues that myths create a negative impact on the society and thus must be given focus on to by behavioral analysts so as to fully eradicate the perception that myths are effectual ‘guiding stars’ (Wolin, 1995) and must be followed and given consideration on to by an individual.Numerous interpretations in the arena of mythological succession had been crucially studied and determined b y socio-political analysts.   With the objective to save the victims of false beliefs, they emerged in a form of research which indulges in transcendence and immanence to take a claim of the juxtaposition of modern and traditional conviction.Power of MythThe power of myth, according to mythologist Joseph Campbell and world renowned journalist Bill Moyers, myth is a sociological and at the same time a behavioral dynamic of individuality whereas enthusiasm of such somehow serve as a steer in decision making.   However, in his documentary show, he also stressed the negative effects of myths which denotes that the fallacious beliefs, taken from the word ‘fallacy’ itself is in a ratio of 10:90 adequate in helping people know and understand their inner self (Nicholson, 1999).Abandoning Mythological SkepticismMoreover, the argument on myths had been prudently expounded the EM Risse, in his article, Shape the Future.   In his article, he contended that the problem of the society on why development is dawdling in motion is because of the citizen’s counterfeit confidence on traditional notions.   Advising the community to jump out of the skin of life’s conventionalities and start exploring the rather challenging schemes of the highly regarded components of human settlement patterns (Bell, 1997).RelicWhat I have cited as an instance where the myth had been believed to be true to fact, is the dispute of a suspect in a rape case, wherein the bark of defenses of the offender laid a table of mythological explanations, which of course, had not been accepted by the court.   A perfect representation and actuality that modern world justice system and form of regulation on justifications of individuals are well studied and are not in point of fact based on that which is falling on the stream of false beliefs and other traditional saga eaten by criminals to escape from the bars of justice.The mere fact that there were still individuals who beli eve in the power of myth, it had been cited that the aforementioned kind take the risk of following the potent nature of myths and thus believe that their salvation or their scheme in life is already written in a book and thus cannot be changed (Nicholson, 1999).Reality versus IdealismFurthermore, I would barely like to support the argument on such statement.   Basing the idea on ‘reality’ versus ‘idealism’ will unfold the life living in myths as well as the twists and turns one may divulge in it (Wolin, 1995).Perhaps it may not be as sufficient as that if the scientific explanations rendered by critical research and studies, but for people who were not able to experience the privilege of knowledge and of literacy do not have any other outlet and sense of support to dwell on. Rather, what myths tend to offer already gives air to their living and thus making the people able to perform what is expected by the community or the culture that they inhabit, rega rdless the quintessence of universality or societal acceptance.ConclusionIn the light, what used to be the ‘bible’ of the medieval individuals’ daily basis has transformed in a rather conceptual and modernized state that such myths instilled by our forefathers had been locked in the jar of the times of yore.   The advent of mythological representations was noted to be either that of which is invented, or which had freely flown into place due to gossip (Bell, 1997; Wolin, 1995).   For the reason that humans are prone to interacting with the like is quite inevitable to take to assumption that the sufficiency and factuality of myths are deliberately hanging thoughts or perspectives.Every person has a certain point of enthusiasm in mythology in them (Wolin, 1995).   It may not be as obvious as one may seem to show the society or the people he or she is involved to, but the inevitability of the ‘vain thoughts’ within oneself is already a subconsciou s mythical ocean (Bell, 1997).   If one tends to believe that death will take him tomorrow, or that one will see his ‘loved one’ after an hour because a red Volkswagen passed by, those are already proofs that the existence of myth and its influence to people has not yet abandoned the modern limelight.   In conclusion, the never ending debates on how true or how sufficient myths are in explaining the phenomena occurring in this earthly place shall always be a part of every human’s query in life.   How people think and act today, may be a manifestation of what one has been before; and how they are today may affect the myth of their future (Nicholson, 1999).ReferencesBell, M. (1997). Literature, Modernism and Myth: Belief and Responsibility in the Twentieth Century. Cambridge, Great Britain: New York Cambridge University Press.Nicholson, P. Y. (1999). Who Do We Think We Are?: Race and Nation in the Modern World. Armonk: N.Y. ME Sharpe, Inc.Te Paske, B. A. (198 2). Rape and Ritual: A Psychological Study. Toronto: Canada Inner City BooksWolin, R. (1995). Labyrinths: Explorations in the Critical History of Ideas. Amherst: Mass. University of Massachusetts Press.

Mark Twains Two Ways of Seeing a River Reading Quiz

Two Ways of Seeing a River is an excerpt from the end of Chapter Nine of Mark Twains autobiographical work Life on the Mississippi, published in 1883. The memoir recounts his early days as a steamboat pilot on the Mississippi and then a trip down the river much later in life from St. Louis to New Orleans. Twains The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1884) is regarded as a masterpiece and was the first piece of American literature to tell the story in colloquial, everyday language. After reading the essay, take this short quiz, and then compare your responses with the answers at the bottom of the page. In the opening sentence of Two Ways of Seeing a River, Twain introduces a metaphor, comparing the Mississippi River to:(A) a snake(B) a language(C) something wet(D) a beautiful woman with a deadly disease(E) the devils highwayIn the first paragraph, Twain uses the technique of repeating key words to emphasize his main point. What is this repeated line?(A) The majestic river!(B) I had made a valuable acquisition.(C) I still keep in mind a wonderful sunset.(D) I had lost something.(E) All the grace, the beauty, the poetry.The detailed description that Twain provides in the first paragraph is recalled from whose point of view?(A) an experienced steamboat captain(B) a small child(C) a beautiful woman with a deadly disease(D) Huckleberry Finn(E) Mark Twain himself, when he was an inexperienced steamboat pilotIn the first paragraph, Twain describes the river as having a ruddy flush. Define the adjective ruddy.(A) crude, rough, unfinished condition(B) having a sturdy build or strong constit ution(C) inspiring pity or compassion(D) reddish, rosy(E) neat and orderlyWhich of these most accurately describes the mood Twain conveys in the short second paragraph and into the third?(A) concerned(B) awed(C) chaotic(D) wary(E) factualHow are Twains comments on the sunset scene in the third paragraph different from his descriptions of it in the first paragraph?(A) The experienced pilot is now able to read the river rather than marvel at its beauty.(B) The older man has grown bored with life on the river and simply wants to return home.(C) The river looks strikingly different at sunset from the way it appears at dawn.(D) The river is suffering as a result of pollution and physical decay.(E) The older and wiser man perceives the true beauty of the river in ways that the younger man would probably make fun of.In paragraph three, Twain uses which figure of speech in the line concerning the rivers face?(A) mixed metaphor(B) oxymoron(C) personification(D) epiphora(E) euphemismIn the fi nal paragraph, Twain raises questions in regard to the way that a doctor might examine the face of a beautiful woman. This passage is an example of what technique?(A) wandering away from the subject(B) drawing an analogy(C) making a transition to an entirely new topic(D) deliberate word-for-word repetition to achieve emphasis(E) anti-climax ANSWERS:1. B; 2. D; 3. E; 4. D; 5. B; 6. A; 7. C; 8. B.